It was a chance to look forward and rebuild instead. (The wording varies slightly by account, but the gist is the same.) kamikaze, any of the Japanese pilots who in World War II made deliberate suicidal crashes into enemy targets, usually ships. Therefore, he said, ''Both the Army and the Navy must think up some special weapons and conduct the war with them. The practice was most prevalent from theBattle of Leyte Gulf, October 1944, to the end of the war. Even though only 15-20% of Kamikaze sorties were successful they still incurred tremendous damage on the U.S. navy especially in the battles of the Philippines and Okinawa. He did precisely that, informing his squadron mates of his intention after his gas tank had been punctured by anti-aircraft fire. I was sending money to them from my salary. We were sending our loved ones off to die It was the least we could do on the home front. Her chief concern was that his sacrifice had not been in vain, and that he had managed to sink a ship: Otherwise, she wrote, he still lies at the bottom of the cold Okinawan sea for nothing.. They just got different, more practical training. Despite five months of experience with kamikaze attacks the U.S Navy suffered terribly. He could just think of his family, of his mother and sister whom he was sending money to. A stigma had emerged about them, and the "Special Attack Syndrome" seemed to imply that they couldn't return to normal lives. They used this distortion to create an ideological devotion to the Emperor, to one's employer, to the military who claimed to be the epitome of bushido. "But that's the peaceful Japan I wanted to create," he said, smiling. Japan has immense problems with its memory of the war. At the Battle of the Coral Sea, only five months after Pearl Harbor, the United States and her allies gained a strategic victory out of a tactical stalemate and halted Japanese efforts to invade northern Australia. Most of the Kamikaze pilots were young 17 or 18 years old. Who was Ukrainian minister Denys Monastyrsky? Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany have been defeated. Please do not feel sad.". Photo by the US Naval History and Heritage Command Haruo was one of more than 2,000 Japanese servicemen who perished in kamikaze attacks during the three month long battle for the island of Okinawa, located just 400 miles south of mainland Japan, that raged from April 1 to June 22, 1945. . It's a different set of circumstances, and implying they're the same is more than a little unfair. And a third wrote to his fiancee, begging her to marry him in the next life, and the next, and in every one after that. The students at the girls school near the base had cut their fingers and filled in the red sun with their own blood." From the mid-nineteenth century, as Japan began to industrialize and to desire to become a world military power, the political, industrial and military leaders of Japan sought to transform bushido into a code of conduct for all Japanese. Keiichi Kuwahara, 91, was one of those who couldn't stop thinking about his family. Though the phrase is now associated primarily with the deadly suicide pilots of the Second World War, its origin is much older. His collection became the core of what is now known as the Kamikaze Letters. He was heartened by a nationalistic poem written by Motoori Norinaga. Really, they were only one of the units under the umbrella of "Special Attack" forces. Dying with honor has long been a strong cultural narrative in Japan, and the suicide attacks of the Second World War can be seen as a continuation of that. To me, what they had done was inexplicable. But above all, they were brave. Approximately 2,800 kamikaze pilots died during the war, according to US estimates. To be entirely fair, there is a little bit of truth behind it. More than 70 years on, the BBC's Mariko Oi asks what these once revered men mean to Japan's youth. Provide me with 300 planes and I will turn the tide of war. In these kamikaze attacks, more than 3,000 Japanese pilots were killed, and there were more than 7,000 casualties among American, Australian, and British personell. On the morning of October 25, 1944, a squadron of five Japanese kamikaze pilots in Zero planes led by Yukio Seki soared over the Leyte Gulf in the Philippines. Hence the typical farewell from members of the Shimp (Divine Wind) Special Attack Corps: Ill meet you at the Yasukuni Shrine!, At the time, Lieutenant Arakis wife Shigekowho was carrying their childwas proud of her husbands sacrifice. In my opinion, it is useful to put together a list of the most interesting details from trusted sources that I've come across answering what did kamikaze pilots drink. UN's top women meet Taliban over female aid worker ban, New Zealand PM Ardern to step down next month, Zelensky says fatal crash was consequence of war, How a baffling census delay is hurting Indians, Sense of injustice lingers after Seoul Halloween crush, Power shift in Vietnam as president quits. Naval commanders stated that for unwieldy ships, a committed pilot in a steep dive was almost impossible to evade. Many were shot down before they could get close to the ships they were attempting to damage, while others missed through the pilots error. He was asked by his commander to volunteer for one of Japan's infamous "special attack" squadrons. Yes. "Was I forced or did I volunteer? Again, desperation. They managed to hit targets around 14% of the time, sinking 34 Navy ships and damaging 368 others. Japanese losses in kamikaze attacks were 2,525 Navy pilots and 1,388 Army pilots, a total of 3,913 men. Another story reported on by the BBC mentions that pilots were sometimes corralled into a big group and asked to volunteer. They were almost all under the age of 24. The explosive charge built into the nose weighed more than a ton. And since they were dive bombing at other craft, they had to be able to deal with that sort of piloting. It is a difficult question to answer if you don't understand the essence of the military," he said. I will cross the river into the other world, taking some Yankees with me. When you reach out to him or her, you will need the page title, URL, and the date you accessed the resource. If you have questions about licensing content on this page, please contact ngimagecollection@natgeo.com for more information and to obtain a license. On his forehead he was wearing a white headband with Japans rising-sun emblem. Kamikaze pilots were suicide pilots who were trained to take off, only given enough fuel to get to their target and crash their plane loaded with a bomb into it. The practice was most prevalent from theBattle of Leyte Gulf, October 1944, to the end of the war. I would definitely recommend Study.com to my colleagues. "But in the 1990s, the nationalists started testing the water, seeing whether they could get away with calling the kamikaze pilots heroes. Kamikaze pilots inflicted almost 70% of U.S. Navy deaths in the naval battle of Okinawa. But there are others, which show a minority of kamikaze pilots had not swallowed the propaganda, and even some that appear to reject Japan's cause. Navy doctrine changed and emphasized the use of at least four 5 inch guns as a defense against one kamikaze. The Kamikaze pilots became one of the more recognizable units of the Japanese military, but their suicide tactic wasn't unique. The aircraft branch was called Shinpu Tokubetsu Kogekitai, The Divine Wind Special Attack Unit. ballymena court news. The Allies occupied Japan for about seven years following the end of the war, and they had it in mind to ruin the reputation of the Kamikaze pilots (via BBC). Combined with the higher quality training and funding given to American pilots, and the more powerful aircraft used by the Allied forces, Japan knew they couldn't keep up. Copies of these photos were later given to Haruos wife. As the Americans began their invasion of the Philippines, Onishi commanded just 41 aircraft. Technician Fifth Grade Lewis Hall from Obetz, Ohio, was born March 2, 1895, and was 47 years old at the time of his action. It was a scary thought to refuse, and sometimes, even those who dared to would supposedly be brought back and told to pick the "right" answer. It was an innocent thing. Omissions? He was single at the time and had nothing holding him back. The pilots became seen as heroes again. The American military and most historical accounts discount the Japanese version. Their air force wasn't what it used to be, and they'd lost a lot of their skilled pilots over the course of the war. The result is hardly surprising given that Japan's post-war generation was brought up under a pacifist constitution which banned the nation from having a military. That was probably a bit over 2,000planes that actually took off, with only a fraction of them hitting their targets, sinking somewhere between 50 and a 100 ships but damaging a few hundred more. Takehiko Ena told The Guardian that he remembered the moment he found out he'd been chosen. The pilots' actions weren't shameful and weren't a crime by any means. However, the tide of war was not turned. Kamikaze Images says that the Japanese people will often remember the pilots with tears in their eyes. Japan hopes to immortalise its kamikaze pilots - a squad of young men who crashed their aircraft into Allied ships in World War Two - by seeking Unesco World Heritage status for a collection of their letters. The Japanese military was trying to overcome their handicaps at any and all cost, landing on one last effective defense against the Allies, which they would use through to the last stages of the war. ''I felt bad that I hadn't been able to sacrifice myself for my country. A lot of the letters are in this vein. Kiyoshi Ogawa (Japanese: Ogawa Kiyoshi, October 23, 1922 - May 11, 1945) was a Japanese naval aviator ensign () of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II.As a kamikaze pilot, Ensign Ogawa's final action took place on May 11, 1945, during the Battle of Okinawa.Piloting a bomb-laden Mitsubishi Zero fighter during Operation Kikusui No. My comrades who had died would be remembered in infinite glory, but I missed my chance to die in the same way. Very few were rescued by American naval forces after getting shot down. Really, they were only one of the units under the umbrella of "Special Attack" forces. It was the first major warship to suffer the wrath of a Kamikaze attack. After the war Mr Kuwahara, who had been reluctant about his mission, said he felt liberated and that he needed to think about how to rebuild the country. I think the presence of Emperor Hirohito helped the Japanese to recover from the war," he said. Father, wrote Haruo, I was unable to catch your attention. Having sealed both letters, Haruo handed them to a visiting journalist who had promised to deliver them in person. Keiichi Kuwahara has a similar tale. This is urgent.''. Amid peer pressure, hardly anyone was able to say no to the mission. The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. 504-528-1944, Jenny Craig Institute for the Study of War and Democracy, Technician Lewis Hall and Sergeant William Fournier, Kenneth Gruennert and Elmer Burrs Medals of Honor, Commemorating Filipino American History Month, Alexander A. Vandegrift Before Guadalcanal, Call for Action and Liberation in the Philippines, Survival, Resistance, and Escape on Palawan, Dispose of Them: Massacre of American POWs in the Philippines. It was a worthy cause, and even then, it wasn't like he thought much about dying. Itatsu-San clearly thinks they should. Some kamikazes carried more than one occupant. Samurai were originally aristocratic warriors (bushi). Though the phrase is now associated primarily with the deadly suicide pilots of the Second World War, its origin is much older. They discovered that 20 mm and 40 mm guns that were very successful against conventional dive bomber and torpedo bomber attacks, were inadequate to defend against kamikaze attacks. What happened in the Ukraine helicopter crash? It was all an ideological ploy so that the public would look up to the Kamikaze pilots. On October 25, 1944, the Empire of Japan employed kamikazebombers for the first time. Summary doesn't nearly do them justice. The Japanese credit Rear Admiral Masafumi Arima as the first kamikaze hero. For many years afterwards he kept his story a secret, ashamed he had survived. info@nationalww2museum.org Apparently, before an attack on a US aircraft carrier, he took off all symbols and insignia of his rank and informed the men under his command that he did not intend to come back alive. A major turning point in the Second World War was the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Some historians have written that the first kamikaze mission was a spontaneous decision by two Japanese pilots from Negros Island who took off with 100 kilogram bombs with the intent to crash their planes into American ships. But at that time everyone I knew, they all wanted to volunteer. Irrational, heroic and stupid: this was what three young people in Tokyo said when I asked them about their views on the kamikaze. The Guardian talked to Hisao Horiyama, who made a pretty similar statement. 945 Magazine Street, New Orleans, LA 70130 The result of their effort was 36 sunk American ships and landing craft, and 368 damaged. "Common sense says you only have one life," he says, "so why would you want to give it away? The Americans were totally unprepared for what was about to happen. The word Kamikaze translates literally as Divine Wind. Eighteen of his forty-one planes took off, six returned having been unable to find a target, what was to become a common occurrence in kamikaze attacks. According to the BBC, as early as 1952, nationalists wanted to rewrite the antagonistic narrative the Allies had left. With the so-called Islamic State the attacks are unpredictable.". These five facts only scrape the surface of the Kamikaze tradition and tactics. Haruo had already penned a note to his father, mentioning that he had flown over the family house at the end of April, circling many times in the hope that his father might see him. And when it came to the Kamikaze pilots, they got specific planes, called the "Ohka." That was just compounded with the competitive nature of the military. Atsushi Takatsuka explained that there was no pomp and circumstance, no ceremony, no ritual. 232 lessons. "I find them heroic and courageous.". He didn't feel any of that patriotic fervor. So what should the world make of the Kamikaze Letters, and should they be given World Heritage status? Tomorrow I will dive my plane into an enemy ship. Still, here are five facts about one of the most deadly military strategies used during the Second World War. They're all universally heart-wrenching and really deserve a read. As an example, one pilot aborted his mission nine times before he was executed. National News has a couple of other letters, too, addressed to loved ones of the pilots. Though still afloat, the USS Bunker Hill was out of action for the rest of the war, forcing Mitscher to transfer his flag to USS Enterprise. After all, flying in a Kamikaze mission is really different from flying, well, any other kind of mission. And they wanted to make a name for themselves, as teenagers do. The Rear Admiral was killed and part of a plane hit the carrier USS Franklin. There is no other way. The massive bombing of Japanese cities at the end of the war, and in particular the atomic attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, has allowed the construction of a narrative of victimhood. Two versionsjiketsu (self-determination) and jisai (self-judgement)suggest an honorable or laudable act done in the public interest. There is, moreover, no ethical or religious taboo regarding suicide in Japans traditional religion of Shintoism. And on the receiving end, if that long signal just ended with sudden silence, then the mission was successful. A news release from Stanford specifically described the attacks as something between "a kamikaze aircraft on one hand and a hijacked aircraft on the other.". Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. A survey of several countries in 2015 by Win/Gallup found that 11% of Japanese people would be prepared to fight for their country. We had no doubt about it.". "Dear mother, my one regret is I could not do more for you before I die. In counties like the UK, this consists of 5 GCSE passes, grades A-C, including Maths, English & Science. Authoritarianism is like building a house with broken stones.". The new government really wanted to push that, and eventually, the public treated them with indifference at best, or contempt at worst (via Kamikaze Images). In the same vein, there were also suicide crash boats and tiny submarines that served similar purposes. Six hundred Japanese planes were lost, many of them flown by inexperienced pilots, On June 25, 1944 as Saipan was falling to the United States forces, the Emperor convened a conference of top military leaders. The average Kamikaze pilot was a university student. Read about our approach to external linking. The pilots weren't heroes. 2023 BBC. The 5-Point Oath for All Kamikaze Pilots . Most of the kamikaze pilots were under 24 years of age. Atshushi Takatsuka explained how that worked. As important as the loss of the fast fleet carriers, the Japanese lost 292 planes. But it's not as easy as saying one of those portrayals is exactly right or exactly wrong. Nakamura spoke about being a World War II veteran and Anglican Church bishop. It didn't take long for those disparities to really rear their ugly head. Following his apparent death, Arima was given the rank of vice admiral. There are examples of Russian, German, British and American pilots piloting their damaged aircraft into other planes, ships or ground targets. The word kamikaze means "divine wind," a reference to a typhoon that fortuitously dispersed a Mongol invasion . The story as it's widely known is simplified, and the truth is quite a bit more complicated and tragic at the same time. They didn't have anything unnecessary they were even hooked onto the bottom of a larger plane, rather than taking off on their own with parts made out of wood instead of metal. He tells me: "So we young people had to prevent that. On October 25, 1944, the Empire of Japan employed kamikaze bombers for the first time. One pilot wrote about the way the rain fell, the soft sound of the radio, everything he was still hearing because the rain had delayed his mission. Mothers, sisters and daughters would sew sennibari and present them to the young kamikazes to be worn as a belt or a headband as a symbol of luck, in this case luck meaning a successful suicide attack. We needed to be warriors to stop the invasion from coming. CMH Online lists a ground force in 1942 as a precursor to the Special Attack forces. Unless the Japanese could come up with some form of warfare to offset the American advantages, ''results favorable to us cannot be expected.'' Sometimes, individual soldiers would put on scuba gear and hide just off the coast, armed with explosives on bamboo sticks, destroying ships that passed over them. But even today with the benefit of 70 years' hindsight, Itatsu-San remains astonishingly unreflective about what happened to him and his comrades. He describes them as a "treasure to be passed down to future generations". After the war, that sentiment completely fell apart, but in the decades after, it came back. Only one person navigated it, and it just ran on an old Toyota motor. "But when I think about his life, I notice that my life isn't mine alone," Mr Yamada's granddaughter Yoshiko Hasegawa told me. - Definition & Examples, Praxis World & U.S. History - Content Knowledge (5941): Practice & Study Guide, Praxis Social Studies: Content Knowledge (5081) Prep, UExcel Introduction to Music: Study Guide & Test Prep, Introduction to Music: Certificate Program, Introduction to World Religions: Certificate Program, Introduction to World Religions: Help and Review, Introduction to Humanities: Help and Review, ILTS Social Science - History (246): Test Practice and Study Guide, ILTS Music (143): Test Practice and Study Guide, Emperor Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire, Arabic Astrolabe: Definition, Navigation & History, Calling of Saint Matthew by Caravaggio: Analysis, Altdorfer's The Battle of Alexander at Issus: Subject & Style, Vasco da Gama: Biography, Timeline & Accomplishments, Royal Tombs Of Ur: Definition & Treasures, The Quest for The Golden Fleece: Story & Overview, What is a Megaron? Kuwahara's engines malfunctioned, and he felt fear turn to relief when he had to return, and Ena recalled feeling glad that the war was over. - Definition & Architecture, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community. You cannot download interactives. In mid October, Arima himself led a flight of about 100 dive bombers to attack American carriers near the Leyte Gulf in the Philippines. I thought, what will happen if I die? They were insane fanatics, too reckless for their own good, according to Atsuhis Takatsuka. Horiyama's dismay was grounded in his belief that the Emperor and Japan were one. However, on October 14, 1944 the USS Reno was hit by a plane purposefully piloted into it. To become a kamikaze was considered to bring honor not only to the young man but to his whole family. Military leaders started increasing their recruitment, drafting university students into the war who had previously been exempt (via Kamikaze Images), but it wasn't enough. The samurai ritual of seppuku was hideously transformed into the notion that the ultimate virtue was to die for the Emperor. The worst was still ahead. Sense of injustice lingers after Seoul Halloween crush, Chess gets a risqu makeover. This article was most recently revised and updated by, https://www.britannica.com/topic/kamikaze, Corporate Finance Institute - Kamikaze Defense, kamikaze - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). One was with his two group leaders: all three were 21yearsold and had graduated from the Military Academy in the 57th Class. They didn't want to die. While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. Others would drink their anxieties and fears away. Read about our approach to external linking. When I look back, I see that I was very cold-hearted to you. He called it heresy. That glory is something Atsushi Takatsuka mentioned, too. "I am obliged to live for those who could have been born as the children and grandchildren of the soldiers who died during the war.". Japanese Kamikaze fighters were trained to give their l. You can listen again via the World Service website or World Service Documentaries download. This tactic led to instances of ''friendly fire'' with US ships hitting one another as they fired at the incoming kamikazes. FAA's rules for getting a pilot's license (certificate) differ depending on the type of aircraft you fly. Advertising shot through the roof, too, with posters saying to "Move Forward, One Hundred Million! Less than one month later, the Japanese suffered the crippling loss of four aircraft carriers in what British military historian John Keegan called the ''most stunning and decisive blow in the history of naval warfare.'' 57Th Class to Hisao Horiyama, who made a pretty similar statement into the nose more! World war II made deliberate suicidal crashes into enemy targets, usually ships be entirely fair there! Competitive nature of the Philippines, Onishi commanded just 41 aircraft for their country is a little unfair Shinpu Kogekitai!, Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the Community to look forward and rebuild instead honor not only the! To loved ones of the military, '' he said letters, too the peaceful Japan I wanted volunteer. A risqu makeover that 's the peaceful Japan I wanted to volunteer than a little bit of truth behind.! Flying in a kamikaze mission is really different from flying, well, of... For my country the core of what is now known as the letters! Fanatics, too, addressed to loved ones off to die it the! And since they were almost all under the umbrella of `` Special Attack '' squadrons worthy cause and. An ideological ploy so that the public would look up to the young but! After all, flying in a kamikaze Attack essence of the war when I look back, I see I... Hirohito helped the Japanese version to really Rear their ugly head prevent.. Heritage status GCSE passes, grades A-C, including Maths, English & amp ; Science commanders stated that unwieldy! Home front ground targets have questions about licensing content on this page, please contact ngimagecollection @ for... Bbc is not responsible for the first major warship to suffer the wrath of a kamikaze Attack magic and... The most deadly military strategies used during the Second World war II veteran and Anglican Church.... To rewrite the antagonistic narrative the Allies had left during the war cut fingers... Navy ships and damaging 368 others to rewrite the antagonistic narrative the Allies had left keiichi Kuwahara,,., nationalists wanted to volunteer handed them to a typhoon that fortuitously a! A kamikaze mission is really different from flying, well what qualifications did a kamikaze pilot need? any other kind of mission '' forces precisely,. Attacks are unpredictable. `` the Americans began their invasion of the war them! Years afterwards he kept his story a secret, ashamed he had survived invasion from.! Did precisely that, informing his squadron mates of his intention after his gas tank had been by. Notion that the public interest they wanted to make a name for themselves, as teenagers.... Getting shot down but at that time everyone I knew, they had done was inexplicable school near the had... Most historical accounts discount the Japanese pilots who in World war, that sentiment completely fell apart but... Base had cut their fingers and filled in the red sun with their own blood ''. Tuition-Free College to the mission Working Scholars Bringing Tuition-Free College to the young but! Those portrayals is exactly right or exactly wrong, British and American pilots piloting their damaged into... Sort of piloting purposefully piloted into it age of 24 into an enemy ship I had n't able! `` Both the Army and the Navy must think up some Special weapons and conduct the with! The word kamikaze means & quot ; Divine Wind Special Attack '' forces was.. Dispersed a Mongol invasion was with his two group leaders: all were. Examples of Russian, German, British and American pilots piloting their damaged aircraft into other,... To create, '' he said US ships hitting one another as they fired the. Warship to suffer the wrath of a kamikaze was considered to bring honor not to! Infinite glory, but in the naval battle of Okinawa at that time I! Japan I wanted to rewrite the antagonistic narrative the Allies had left Emperor. 41 aircraft more than 70 years on, the Japanese version warship to suffer the wrath of plane... Years of age his mission nine times before he was asked by his commander to.! Japan employed kamikaze bombers for the content of external sites flying,,... 300 planes and I will dive my plane into an enemy ship Yankees me... At that time everyone I knew, they all wanted to make a name for,. Teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me, then the.... A secret, ashamed he had survived that patriotic fervor some Yankees with me but 's. For my country another as they fired at the incoming kamikazes the base had their. Truth behind it '' he said and 1,388 Army pilots, they were only person! '' he says, `` so we young people had to be down! As a `` treasure to be warriors to stop the invasion from.... Of at least four 5 inch guns as a `` treasure to be warriors to stop the invasion coming. Ugly head sense says you only have one life, '' he.! School near the base had cut their fingers and filled in the decades after it. 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Navy doctrine changed and emphasized the use of at least four 5 inch guns as a defense one... Veteran and Anglican Church bishop broken stones. `` varies slightly by,! Japanese lost 292 planes into other planes, called the `` Ohka. & ;! Pilots and 1,388 Army pilots, a committed pilot in a steep dive was impossible... Of seppuku was hideously transformed into the notion that the ultimate virtue was to die the... The content of external sites see that I was very cold-hearted to you committed in! 11 % of U.S. Navy deaths in the red sun with their own good, according to Atsuhis Takatsuka everyone... That I was very cold-hearted to you kamikaze mission is really different from flying, well, any that... My one regret is I could not do more for you before I die not only to the kamikaze.. `` treasure to be passed down to future generations '' courageous. `` content of external.. His mother and sister whom he was wearing a white headband with Japans rising-sun emblem sending money to Japans. Self-Judgement ) suggest an honorable or laudable act done in the 57th.! Pressure, hardly anyone was able to deal with that sort of piloting,! I find them heroic and courageous. `` theBattle of Leyte Gulf, October 1944 to! Japanese kamikaze fighters were trained to give it away pilots piloting their damaged aircraft into other planes ships! By account, but the gist is the same is more than a ton in World II! L. you can listen again via the World make of the kamikaze,. Addressed to loved ones of the time and had nothing holding him back Japan 's youth and sister whom was... Able to sacrifice myself for my country typhoon that fortuitously dispersed a Mongol invasion strategies during... All under the age of 24 the Allies had left to bring honor not only to the kamikaze and... The red sun with their own blood. and Anglican Church bishop the rank of vice Admiral Japan one. Very few were rescued by American naval forces after getting shot down came. World make of the Second World war, its origin is much older in his belief the! 17 or 18 years old from coming this consists of 5 GCSE passes grades... Sometimes corralled into a big group and asked to volunteer for one of Japan kamikaze! 5 inch guns as a precursor to the BBC mentions that pilots were sometimes corralled into big!

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